Teacher Shortages in Developed Countries: A systematic literature review of measures and their effectiveness
Dave H. J. van Breukelen （ Fontys University of Applied Science for Teacher Education Sittard, Monseigneur Claessensstraat 4, 6131 AJ, Sittard, The Netherlands ）
Hanneke Theelen （ Zuyd University of Applied Science, Nieuw Eyckholt 300, 6400 AN, Heerlen, The Netherlands ）
https://doi.org/10.37155/2972-4856-0401-1Abstract
This systematic literature review explores measures implemented in developed countries since 2007 to address teacher shortages across all educational levels, and examines their effects. The review identifies five main categories of interventions: workplace support and improvement, financial incentives and rewards, training and development, recruitment strategies, and stakeholder engagement. These measures operate across different phases of the teacher pipeline (recruitment, pre-service, and in-service) and vary in their short- and long-term impact. Findings indicate a strong emphasis on in-service interventions, such as salary increases and workload reductions, which provide immediate relief but often lack sustainability. Long-term strategies that improve working conditions, enhance professional development, and strengthen teacher preparation are essential to shift the focus from short-term fixes to prevention. Furthermore, teacher shortages are unevenly distributed across regions, subjects, and school types, making universal solutions impractical. Rural and high-needs schools face particularly acute challenges, underscoring the need for context-sensitive approaches. Addressing this complexity requires coordinated action among stakeholders and robust policy support to ensure systemic improvements in recruitment, training, and retention. Ultimately, effective solutions require integrated, evidence-based strategies that combine immediate interventions with structural reforms, sustained investment, and collaborative efforts to build a stable and motivated teaching workforce, thereby enhancing the profession’s image and attractiveness.
Keywords
Teacher shortage; Systematic literature review; Teacher pipeline; Measures; EffectivenessFull Text
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[3] Barth, P., Dillon, N., Hull, J., & Higgins, B. H. (2016). Fixing the holes in the teacher pipeline: An overview of teacher shortages. Center for Public Education.
[4] Bates, G., Fisher, R., Turner, K., Machirori, T. L., & Rixon, A. (2024). Raising the social status of teachers: Teachers as social entrepreneurs. The Australian Educational Researcher, 51(4), 1405–1424. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13384-023-00646-4
[5] Billingsley, B., & Bettini, E. (2019). Special education teacher attrition and retention: A review of the literature. Review of Educational Research, 89(5), 697–744. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654319862495
[6] Birch, P., Motiejūnaitė-Schulmeister, A., De Coster, I., Davydovskaia, O., & Vasiliou, N. (2021). Teachers in Europe: Careers, development and well-being. European Commission: Publications Office of the European Union. https://data.europa.eu/doi/10.2797/997402
[7] Boe, E. E. (1996). Research on the shortage of teachers in the United States: Models, methods, and findings. Joint Meetings of the Education Research Association and the Australian Association for Research in Education, Singapore.
[8] Boetje, J., & Van der Schoor, R. (2024). The SAFE procedure: A practical stopping heuristic for active learning-based screening in systematic reviews and meta-analyses. Systematic Reviews, 13(81), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13643-024-02502-7
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[10] Brownell, M. T., Bishop, A. M., & Sindelar, P. T. (2018). Republication of “NCLB and the demand for highly qualified teachers: Challenges and solutions for rural schools.” Rural Special Education Quarterly, 37(1), 4–11. https://doi.org/10.1177/8756870517749604
[11] Buchanan, J. (2012). Telling tales out of school: Exploring why former teachers are not returning to the classroom. Australian Journal of Education, 56(2), 205–217. https://doi.org/10.1177/000494411205600207
[12] Burke, B. M., & Ceo-DiFrancesco, D. (2022). Recruitment and retention of world language teacher education majors: Perspectives of teacher candidates and alumni to remedy a global shortage. Foreign Language Annals, 55(2), 333–360. https://doi.org/10.1111/flan.12613
[13] Chapman, L. A., Morris, C. T., & Cavendish, W. (2021). “She’s my partner in crime”: Informal collaboration and beginning special teacher induction. The New Educator, 17(2), 197–218. https://doi.org/10.1080/1547688x.2021.1904070
[14] De Witte, K., De Cort, W., & Gambi, L. (2023). Evidence-based solutions to teacher shortages. NESET Report. Publications Office of the European Union. https://doi.org/10.2766/475647
[15] Dreer, B. (2021). Teachers’ well-being and job satisfaction: The important role of positive emotions in the workplace. Educational Studies, 50(1), 61–77. https://doi.org/10.1080/03055698.2021.1940872
[16] Dupriez, V., Delvaux, B., & Lothaire, S. (2016). Teacher shortage and attrition: Why do they leave? British Educational Research Journal, 42(1), 21–39. https://doi.org/10.1002/berj.3193
[17] Eckert, K. (2020). Addressing the teacher shortage: Recruiting our next generation of teachers. In M. Soskil (Ed.), Flip the System US. Routledge.
[18] García, E., & Weiss, E. (2019). The teacher shortage is real, large and growing, and worse than we thought. Economic Policy Institute. https://epi.org/163651
[19] Gooden, C., Zelkowski, J., & Smith, F. A. (2023). A systematic literature review on factors of stress, burnout and job satisfaction of secondary grades teachers at time of professional crisis. The Clearing House, 96(5), 162–171. https://doi.org/10.1080/00098655.2023.2238880
[20] Gorard, S., See, B. H., Smith, E., & White, P. (2007). What can we do to strengthen the teacher workforce? International Journal of Lifelong Education, 26(4), 419–437. https://doi.org/10.1080/02601370701417194
[21] Gorard, S., Ventista, O. M., Morris, R., & See, B. H. (2021). Who wants to be a teacher? Findings from a survey of undergraduates in England. Educational Studies, 49(6), 914–936. https://doi.org/10.1080/03055698.2021.1915751
[22] Hudson, S., & Hudson, P. (2019). “Please help me find teachers for my rural and remote school”: A model for teaching readiness. Australian and International Journal of Rural Education, 29(3), 24–38. https://doi.org/10.47381/aijre.v29i3.233
[23] Hutchison, L. F. (2012). Addressing the STEM teacher shortage in American schools: Ways to recruit and retain effective STEM teachers. Action in Teacher Education, 34(5–6), 541–550. https://doi.org/10.1080/01626620.2012.729483
[24] Ingersoll, R. M., & Tran, H. (2023). Teacher shortages and turnover in rural schools in the US: An organizational analysis. Educational Administration Quarterly, 59(2), 396–431. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013161X231159922
[25] Inspectie van Onderwijs. (2023). Technisch rapport verkennend onderzoek lerarentekort. Ministerie van Onderwijs, Cultuur en Wetenschap.
[26] Kuijpers, A. J., Dam, M., & Janssen, F. J. J. M. (2024). A systems thinking approach to capture the complexity of effective routes to teaching. European Journal of Education, 59(2), e12623. https://doi.org/10.1111/ejed.12623
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[28] Lindqvist, M. H., & Gidlund, U. (2024). Important aspects of teacher shortage in schools: A literature review. Athens Journal of Education, 11, 1–8.
[29] Love, T. S., & Love, Z. J. (2022). The teacher recruitment crisis: Examining influential recruitment factors from a United States technology and engineering teacher preparation program. International Journal of Technology and Design Education, 33(1), 105–121. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10798-022-09727-4
[30] Martinie, S., Nguyen, T., Nusser, T., Spencer, C., & Natarajan, R. (2023). The recruitment and retention of mathematics teachers in high-need schools. Mathematics Teacher Education and Development, 25(2), 1–18.
[31] McHenry-Sorber, E., Campbell, M. P., & Sutherland, D. H. (2023). Principals’ understanding of and responses to place influences on teacher staffing in West Virginia. Educational Administration Quarterly, 59(2), 432–464. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013161X211053590
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[33] Mendez, E. (2023). The true reasons behind the teacher shortage. California State University.
[34] Morettini, B. W. (2014). Going back to school: Why STEM professionals decide to teach through alternative certification programs. Journal of the National Association for Alternative Certification, 9(2), 3–23.
[35] OECD. (2023). Education at a Glance 2023: OECD Indicators. OECD Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1787/e13bef63-en
[36] Patil, R. (2023). Rethinking teacher retention policy: Empowering Australian teachers through autonomy, collaboration and career progression. The International Journal of Community and Social Development, 5(3), 306–323. https://doi.org/10.1177/25166026231198300
[37] Pauwels, K., Van Loon, H., Tanghe, E., & Schelfhout, W. (2022). Motives of student teachers in academic teacher education for secondary education. Education Sciences, 12(10), 724. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci12100724
[38] Peyton, D. J., et al. (2021). Special education teacher shortage: Differences between high and low shortage states. Teacher Education and Special Education, 44(1), 5–23. https://doi.org/10.1177/0888406420906618
[39] Podolsky, A., Kini, T., Bishop, J., & Darling-Hammond, L. (2016). Solving the teacher shortage: How to attract and retain excellent educators. Learning Policy Institute.
[40] Rahimi, M., & Arnold, B. (2024). Understanding Australia’s teacher shortage. The Australian Educational Researcher, 1–27. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13384-024-00720-5
[41] Rhinesmith, E., et al. (2023). Recruiting and retaining teachers in rural schools: A systematic review. Peabody Journal of Education, 98(4), 347–363. https://doi.org/10.1080/0161956X.2023.2238491
[42] Richards, L. C., & Gurley, D. K. (2023). Retaining non-traditionally certified teachers. Alabama Journal of Educational Leadership, 10, 13–32.
[43] Rinnooy Kan, A., et al. (2007). LeerKracht! Ministerie van Onderwijs, Cultuur en Wetenschap.
[44] See, B. H., & Gorard, S. (2019). Why don’t we have enough teachers? Research Papers in Education, 35(4), 416–442. https://doi.org/10.1080/02671522.2019.1568535
[45] Seeliger, S., & Lindqvist, M. H. (2023). Dealing with teacher shortage in Germany. Education Sciences, 13(3), 227. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci13030227
[46] Shine, K. (2015). Reporting the “exodus”. Issues in Educational Research, 25(4), 501–516.
[47] Sims, S. (2020). Modelling the relationships between teacher working conditions, job satisfaction and workplace mobility. British Educational Research Journal, 46(2), 301–320. https://doi.org/10.1002/berj.3578
[48] Slichko, J. C., Ihle, F., & Gish, J. (2023). Build the Teacher Pipeline Initiative. Journal of Special Education Preparation, 3(2), 18–25. https://doi.org/10.33043/JOSEP.3.2.18-25
[49] Stokes, A. (2007). Factors influencing the decisions of university students to become high school teachers. Issues in Educational Research, 17(1), 127–145.
[50] Straková, J., & Simonová, J. (2024). Why do teachers leave schools? International Journal of Educational Management, 38(5), 1444–1458. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJEM-07-2023-0361
[51] Struyven, K., Jacobs, K., & Dochy, F. (2013). Why do they want to teach? European Journal of Psychology of Education, 28(3), 1007–1022. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10212-012-0151-4
[52] Sutcher, L., Darling-Hammond, L., & Carver-Thomas, D. (2019). Understanding teacher shortages. Education Policy Analysis Archives, 27(35). http://dx.doi.org/10.14507/epaa.27.3696
[53] Symonds, J. E., & Tang, X. (2024). Quality appraisal checklist for quantitative, qualitative, and mixed methods studies. PsyArXiv. https://doi.org/10.31234/osf.io/djmcq
[54] The Joanna Briggs Institute. (2017). Checklist for systematic reviews and research syntheses.
[55] Theelen, H., & van Breukelen, D. H. J. (2025). What’s going on? A systematic literature review of the causes and consequences of teacher shortages. The Journal of Education Insights, 3(4).
[56] UNESCO & International Task Force on Teachers for Education 2030. (2024). Global report on teachers. UNESCO. https://doi.org/10.54675/FIGU8035
[57] United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs. (2019). Worldwide urbanization prospects: The 2018 revision. United Nations.
[58] Van Rooij, E. C. M., Fokkens-Bruinsma, M., & Goedhart, M. J. (2020). Identifying potential secondary school teachers. Journal of Science Teacher Education, 31(5), 556–577. https://doi.org/10.1080/1046560X.2020.1729478
[59] World Population Review. (2024). Western Countries 2024.
Copyright © 2026 Dave H. J. van Breukelen, Hanneke Theelen
Publishing time:2026-01-08
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License